A World of Motifs and Borders:

Samplers may have started as simple practice cloths, but over time they developed into vibrant records of culture and tradition. Wherever children picked up their needles, whether in England, Germany, Greece, or Australia, their stitches carried more than alphabets and numbers. Each region developed its own “visual vocabulary,” drawing on local art, religion, folklore, and daily life. Looking closely at motifs and borders across cultures reveals just how much samplers can tell us about the societies that produced them.

French Samplers

In France, samplers were often practical “marking samplers” designed to train girls in the art of embroidering initials onto household linens. To make these initials stand out, teachers often required girls to work in red cotton thread, a tradition so strong that French samplers are still immediately recognizable by their rows of bright red alphabets. Common motifs included:

• French girls often stitched rows of alphabets in red thread (sometimes called “marking red”), especially in the 19th century.
• Crosses, sacred hearts, chalices, and church-related symbols were common, reflecting Catholic influence.
• National symbols like the fleur-de-lis often appeared, linking samplers to French heritage.
• Practicing initials in ornate styles was important, since linen marking was an essential skill

Many included decorative monograms, elaborate crown motifs, and the unmistakable fleur-de-lis, France’s national symbol. Religious images such as crosses, sacred hearts, and chalices reflected the influence of Catholic teaching. These pieces were not only proof of literacy and skill but also quiet affirmations of faith and national identity. (French Sampler, 1863. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Open Access / Public Domain)

German Samplers: Precision and Folk Traditions

German samplers are known for their bold, geometric designs. Strongly patterned borders, diamonds, chevrons, and zigzags, framed rows of Gothic-style alphabets. The discipline of stitching these precise forms echoed the structured nature of German schooling, where neatness and order were highly valued. Common motifs included:

• Bold, structured diamonds, zigzags, and check patterns were very typical.
• National symbols like eagles appeared often, as did single and double crowns.
• Verses in Gothic lettering, along with Christian symbols such as crosses and lambs.
• Tulips, stylized trees, and hearts in symmetrical arrangements, echoing German folk art.

Yet alongside this formality, German samplers also drew from folk traditions. Hearts, tulips, stylized trees, and birds appeared in symmetrical arrangements, echoing motifs found in painted furniture, ceramics, and textiles of rural communities. Crowns and eagles reinforced national pride, while pious sayings reminded children of the importance of faith.

Australian Samplers: Tradition in a New Land

When British settlers brought sampler traditions to Australia in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, they carried with them the alphabets, verses, and decorative borders familiar from English models. Early colonial samplers often show neat rows of letters, floral sprays, and images of houses, familiar motifs that provided comfort in an unfamiliar land. Common motifs included:

• Early colonial Australian samplers followed English models like alphabets, houses, and verses, although sometimes added distinctly Australian plants, like wattle blossoms, or local animals.
• Weeping willows, urns, and mourning symbols were carried over from England but sometimes dedicated to family who had died far from “home.”
• A few rare examples of convict samplers survive, worked by girls in orphanages or convict schools, often plain alphabets with sparse decoration.

But over time, Australian samplers began to incorporate distinctly local touches. Golden wattle blossoms, now the national floral emblem, occasionally appeared in borders. Some samplers included local animals, such as kangaroos or cockatoos, stitched with wide-eyed curiosity by girls encountering them in daily life. Memorial motifs, urns and weeping willows also appear, sometimes dedicated to family members who had died far from their homeland.

A handful of samplers worked in convict schools and orphanages survive today. These are often sparse, limited to alphabets and numerals, yet they carry poignant reminders of the role needlework played in education and discipline. ) Alice Winter, “Remember Thy Creator in the Days of Thy Youth,” Melbourne, c.1866. Museums Victoria Collection. Public Domain) 

Greek Samplers: Color, Geometry, and Symbolism

Greek samplers reveal a different kind of beauty, one rooted in the bold colors and strong forms of Byzantine and folk art. Brightly stitched geometric patterns dominate, often in repeating bands of diamonds, stars, and stylized flowers. Common motifs included:

• Bold colors, stylized birds, flowers, and geometric patterns influenced by Byzantine art.
• The Greek cross, often repeated, sometimes in elaborate interlaced patterns.
• A very common border motif called Meander or Greek Key is taken from ancient Greek decorative art.
• Boats, doves, and pomegranates (symbols of fertility and abundance) show up frequently.

Borders frequently included the meander, or Greek key, an ancient motif symbolizing infinity and unity. The Greek cross also appeared regularly, reflecting both religious devotion and national identity. Pomegranates, symbols of fertility and abundance, brought a touch of daily life into the stitching, while doves and boats reflected the seafaring traditions of the region.

Dutch Samplers

Dutch girls were famous for their band samplers, long, narrow pieces filled with stacked horizontal rows of alphabets, numbers, and motifs. Tulips, crowns, and lions reflected Dutch identity, while stylized birds, stars, and trees filled the decorative bands. Many included religious verses or moral sayings stitched in Gothic or Roman lettering. Common motifs included:

• Tulips and Flowers: Symbols of Dutch identity and prosperity.
• Crowns and Lions: Representations of monarchy and strength.
• Birds, Trees, and Stars: Decorative, often arranged in orderly rows.
• Religious Verses: Psalms or moral sayings stitched in Gothic or Roman lettering.

Dutch samplers often look immediately recognizable because of their vertical format and clear, row-by-row progression. They served both as teaching tools and as lasting family records, often bearing the child’s full name, age, and date of completion. (Sampler, Marken, Netherlands, c.1650. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Open Access / Public Domain.)

English Samplers 

England produced some of the most diverse and influential samplers. Early examples from the 17th century included moral verses and Biblical texts framed by floral borders. By the 18th and 19th centuries, pictorial samplers were common, with motifs such as Adam and Eve beneath the Tree of Knowledge, country houses, shepherdesses, or pastoral animals. Common motifs included:

• Biblical and Moral Verses: Inspirational texts in neat panels.
• Adam and Eve Scenes: Beneath the Tree of Knowledge, often flanked by animals.
• Country Houses and Pastoral Scenes: Symmetrical houses, shepherdesses, and animals.
• Mourning Symbols: Weeping willows, urns, and angels to memorialize family members.

Mourning samplers, stitched with weeping willows, urns, and angels, became particularly popular in the Victorian period as ways to memorialize loved ones. English samplers were often symmetrical and carefully balanced, reflecting both discipline and artistry. (English Sampler, c.1820s. Cleveland Museum of Art. Open Access / Public Domain.)

American Samplers - Colonial and Early US

Sampler traditions came to America with English colonists, but they quickly developed a character of their own. Alphabets and moral verses remained, but patriotic motifs emerged after the Revolution, like eagles, flags, and sometimes tributes to George Washington. Common motifs included:

• Eagles and Flags: Emblems of patriotism and independence.
• Memorial Symbols: Urns, willows, and inscriptions honoring loved ones.
• Family Records: Names, birth dates, marriages, and deaths stitched into the cloth.
• Floral Borders and Baskets: Borrowed from English style but localized.

Memorial samplers were common, recording family deaths with urns, willows, and inscriptions. Some samplers served as family registers, carefully listing births, marriages, and deaths, making them valuable historical documents today. American girls often stitched floral borders, baskets, and houses, echoing English styles but with a distinctly new-world flavor. 

Spanish Samplers 

Spanish samplers reveal a love for bold color and strong design. Bright reds, golds, and indigos dominate, stitched in repeating bands of geometric patterns. Religious motifs were central: crosses, Marian symbols, and saints often filled the cloth. Common motifs included:

• Crosses and Marian Symbols: Reflecting Spain’s strong Catholic tradition.
• Saints and Religious Images: Often central to the design.
• Geometric Lattice Patterns: Echoes of Moorish and Islamic art.
• Bright Color Bands: Strong contrasts in red, gold, and indigo

Spain’s history of Moorish influence also left its mark, with intricate latticework and geometric repeats echoing Islamic design. Spanish samplers are striking for their contrast, richly ornamental yet deeply devotional, blending cultural influences into distinctive, eye-catching work. (Spanish Sampler, c.1690. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Open Access / Public Domain)

Italian Samplers

Italy is best known for samplers that highlight drawn thread work, cutwork, and early lace techniques. These were preparations for more advanced textile work in household linens and ecclesiastical embroidery. Italian girls often stitched elaborate alphabets, ornate monograms, and borders resembling lace. Common motifs included:

• Drawn Thread and Cutwork Patterns: Lace-like borders and fills.
• Ornate Alphabets and Monograms: Decorative lettering styles.
• Religious Imagery: Crosses, saints, and ecclesiastical motifs.
• Elegant Borders: Flourishes resembling lace and scrollwork.

Religious imagery, from crosses to saints, was common, reflecting the Catholic tradition. Italian samplers are elegant, refined, and often more ornamental than narrative, showing off technical skill as much as artistry.  

Scandinavian Samplers - Denmark, Norway, Sweden

Scandinavian samplers have a bold, graphic style, usually stitched in strong primary colors like reds, blues, and greens. Alphabets are often paired with angular motifs: crowns, tulips, stars, and stylized trees. These designs echo folk art traditions found in painted furniture and woodcarving.  Common motifs included:

• Crowns, Tulips, and Stars: Angular and graphic, echoing folk art.
• Trees of Life: Symbolic and decorative.
• Geometric Borders: Diamonds, zigzags, and angular shapes.
• Primary Color Schemes: Reds, blues, and greens in vivid contrast.  

Many samplers doubled as marking samplers, teaching children to stitch initials for household linens. The blend of utility and bright folk imagery makes Scandinavian samplers instantly recognizable and full of charm. (Scandinavian Sampler, 1776. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Open Access / Public Domain)

Central & Eastern European Samplers - Poland, Czechia, Hungary

In Central and Eastern Europe, samplers reflect the rich tradition of folk embroidery. Bold tulips, hearts, peacocks, and stylized flowers dominate, stitched in vibrant colors. Borders often echo woven textile patterns, with diamonds and zigzags common. Common motifs included:

• Tulips, Hearts, and Stylized Flowers: Bold and symmetrical.
• Peacocks and Birds: Popular in folk embroidery.
• Religious Symbols: Crosses and crowns, often in bright thread.
• Woven-Style Borders: Diamonds, checks, and repeating geometric bands.

Alphabets appear, but motifs take center stage, making these samplers more decorative than didactic. Religious symbols like crosses, crowns, and pious verses also appear, reflecting the importance of faith and family in daily life. These samplers connect closely to the motifs found on traditional folk costumes. 

Russian Samplers

Russian samplers often feature bright red thread, a color long associated with life, luck, and protection in Slavic culture. Alphabets appear in both Cyrillic and Roman letters, sometimes mixed together. Folk motifs such as roosters, horses, and suns are frequent, along with bold geometric borders that echo woven patterns.  Common motifs included:

• Bright Red Alphabets: Cyrillic and Roman, sometimes mixed.
• Roosters, Horses, and Suns: Folk symbols of fertility, energy, and hope.
• Religious Icons and Crosses: Expressions of Orthodox faith.
• Geometric Borders: Bold repeats echoing woven patterns.

Religious symbols, including crosses and icons, also appear. Russian samplers combine utility with strong cultural symbolism, resulting in striking, colorful work that feels both folk-inspired and deeply personal. (Sampler with Alphabets in Russian, German, and Hebrew, 1888. Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum. Public Domain (via Wikimedia Commons)

Mexican & Latin American Samplers

Samplers in Mexico and other parts of Latin America reflect both Spanish colonial influence and indigenous artistry. Bright, vibrant palettes, reds, yellows, greens, and blues dominate. Religious motifs are central: crosses, Marian images, and church-related symbols are frequent. Common motifs included:

• Crosses and Marian Symbols: Central to Catholic identity.
• Floral and Animal Designs: Inspired by indigenous folk art traditions.
• Bold Color Palettes: Reds, greens, yellows, and blues in lively combinations.
• Hybrid Layouts: European alphabets and borders alongside local motifs.

Floral and animal motifs adapted from local folk art traditions bring a distinct regional flavor, making these samplers vivid and lively. They often blend European structure (alphabets, borders) with local themes, creating hybrids that tell stories of cultural exchange.

The Global Language of Motifs

What’s striking about regional samplers is how they combine the universal with the particular. Alphabets and numbers appear almost everywhere, but the motifs like flowers, borders, animals, and symbols carry the flavor of their own culture. A Dutch crown, an English willow, a Spanish lattice, or a Russian rooster all stitch history into linen. A French red-thread alphabet, a German diamond border, an Australian wattle blossom, and a Greek key pattern each tell us not only about the skills being taught but also about the values, tastes, and daily realities of the stitchers. By comparing these regional traditions, we see that samplers were not just tools of education but also mirrors of cultural identity, miniature tapestries that recorded the values and aesthetics of entire communities.

Why Regional Styles Matter

For modern stitchers, exploring regional samplers offers both inspiration and connection.  Collectors and historians cherish these variations because they reveal how needlework adapted to place and time, reflecting everything from religion to colonial experience.

When we admire an old sampler, we’re not just looking at stitches on linen. We’re seeing a world of meaning compressed into tiny motifs, symbols of love, loyalty, faith, family, and national pride. And in that sense, samplers truly speak an international language, one we can still read and appreciate today.

(Header Photo: Ann McFarlan (American), Sampler 1827. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Open Access / Public Domain)

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Written by Thea Dueck: designer, teacher and founder of the Victoria Sampler. A professional needlework designer and a recognized authority in specialty stitches. She loves sharing the joy of samplers and specialty stitches.